Outline of the key models of working memory

Outline of the key models of working memory Memory has long fascinated cognitive psychologists and cognitive theories as to the nature of memory go as far back as the late 19th century and William James (James, 1890). He was the first to propose a multi-store model of memory. In it he distinguished between primary and secondary memory. He stated that primary memory consisted of information that remained in the consciousness immediately after it had been perceived and secondary memory which constituted memories that had left the consciousness but were still readily obtainable. His theories became the benchmark for cognitive research in the area of memory and were expanded upon with the terms short-term memory and long-term memory soon becoming coined instead of his primary and secondary memory model. This was then developed into a three stage model by Atkinson and Shiffren in 1968 (Passer Smith, 2009). This multi-store model was a quite a large advancement; however it was very basic in design as regards the workings of short t erm memory (Eysenck Keane, 2010). It wasnt until the 70s and Baddeley and Hitchs model of working memory, that a more developed theory on short term memory was properly explored (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974). They believed that the three stage model of memory was too passive in its explanation on short term memory. This was the most complex theory in this area that had been put forward at the time, however Baddeleys Working Memory theory is not universally agreed upon and other contrasting views exist. For example Shah and Miyake disagree with some of Baddeleys assumptions in a paper published in 1996 (Eysenck and Keane, 2010). In this essay different theories on working memory will be explored, also to be taken into account is how they compare and contrast. It will also be evaluated whether working memory can be understood in terms of attentional control by taking into account various studies. The Working Memory model has been greatly expanded on over the years since it was first published yet its core arguments remain the same. Working memory is a limited capacity system that temporarily stores and processes information (Passer Smith, 2009). According to Baddeley, working memory is split into four components, a phonological loop, a visuo-spatial sketchpad, a central executive and an episodic buffer. The phonological loop is where sounds are briefly stored in working memory. It is active when listening to spoken words or sounding out words while reading. Baddeley and Hitch proposed that the phonological loop is made up of two mechanisms, a phonological store and an articulatory rehearsal system. The articulatory rehearsal system silently repeats the information in order to access the phonological store which is connected with the perception of speech. As shown in Eysenck Keane (2010) there is fairly good evidence to support its presence through research with brain damaged patients. However the point should be raised that the phonological loop seems to have little purpose as people with deficient phonological loops seem to manage very well. The visuo-spatial sketchpad oversees the brief storage of visual and spatial information (Passer Smith, 2010). Similar to the phonological loop Baddeley proposed that it also can be separated into two mechanisms, the visual cache which stores information concerning the image from and colour and the inner scribe which processes spatial and movement information. It also transfers the information from the visual cache to the central executive. It should also be noted that the Baddeleys working memory theory allows for the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad to be used simultaneously, this can be seen when a word is linked with an image in memory. Evidence by a variety of researchers supports the idea of separate spatial and visual components including research by Quinn and Mc Connell in 1996 and Beschin et al in 1997 however very little is yet proven about the processes which integrate both of these (Eysenck Keane, 2010). The central executive is the most important, yet least understood, of Baddeleys four components in his working memory model. It directs the overall action of the other components and is theorized to be contained in the frontal lobes of the brain. It is also theorized to be responsible for the switching of attention between tasks, the planning of sub-tasks to achieve a goal, the updating and checking of the contents of the working memory system and coding representations in working memory for time and place of appearance (Eysenck Keane, 2010). Baddeley used the impairments displayed by individuals who suffered from damage to the frontal lobes on their brain as evidence to support the presence of the central executive. He hypothesised that it was because of a malfunctioning central executive that these individuals acted as though they lacked a system to control their processing resources appropriately. Baddeley called this dysexecutive syndrome (Eysenck Keane, 2010). The final component of Baddeleys model is the episodic buffer; this was only added to the working memory theory in 2000. It was believed that the model was lacking a general storage system that is not limited to just one form of information but can manage several types. This is the role that the episodic buffer fills. It takes information from both the long term and working memory and integrates and manipulates it so that it can be consciously used. Baddeley also believed that the episodic buffer comes into play when chunking information. He proposed that the episodic buffer expands on the phonological loops limited acoustic range and allows the brain to remember larger chunks of information in the short term by putting them into meaningful phrases and linking them together with what is already known in the long term memory (Passer Smith, 2009) Baddeley and Hitches working memory model is extremely comprehensive and is a very valid alternative to Atkinson and Shiffrens short term store model as it has more evidence to support its theories then the other way around (Eysenck Keane, 2010). However not all researchers agree with all aspects of this working memory model. Shah and Miyake (1996) disagreed with Baddeleys notion that there is only one central executive. They put forward the theory that there are in fact separate central executives that deal with verbal and spatial working memory systems respectively. They obtained evidence that supported their view through a study in which students were presented with tests of verbal and spatial working memory, in their results the correlations between reading span and spatial span seemed to agree with their hypothesis on separateness. This showcases that Baddeley and Hitches model is not omnipotent. Another working memory model is Cowans Integrated Framework theory (Cowan, 1995). Here Cowan doesnt regard working memory as a separate system, but as a part of long-term memory and he believes that working memory is organized into two levels. The first level is made up of the activation of long-term memory stores; he believes that there can be many of these and that there is no limit to activation of these stores in long-term memory. The second level is called the focus of attention. The focus is regarded as capacity limited and holds up to four of the activated stores. Cowans model is not as expansive as Baddeleys and it goes against the grain as it promotes a single-store model which could be viewed as dated by many researchers today. However it does attempt to understand working memory in terms of attentional control, a view shared by many. A study on adults with ADHD sought to prove whether working memory ability could explain group differences in brain activity between those with ADHD and a control group during attentionally demanding situations (Burgess et al, 2010). Their results seemed to suggest that a link does indeed exist between working memory and attentional control. Also, Baddeley himself said that the central executive and the supervisory attentional system (SAS) described by Shallice (1982) were one and the same. According to Shallice, the supervisory attentional system is a limited capacity system that is used for a variety of purposes, including the monitoring of tasks involving planning or decision making. In conclusion this essay examined the working memory model and some of its offshoot models. Baddeley and Hitchs original model has been developed and most researchers use it as the base model for their studies in this area. It has been expanded upon many times over the years and seems to be able to incorporate more modern ideas into its basic structure. As a result the argument can be put forward that it is currently the best model of working memory. As regards working memory and attentional control, they appear to be linked and studies seem to have shown that link as shown by

Virtues Of My Life: Order, Courage, Patience :: essays research papers

Virtues of My Life: Order, Courage, Patience In order to survive in 1996, there need to be at least some standards and goals of morality in a person's life. Moral excellence is definitely hard to achieve, but is definitely something to attempt. Personally, there are many distractions and obstructions the present day provides, creating a difficulty of direction in my own life. I need to overcome obstacles such as peer pressure in order to become a confident, successful person. The present day provides impediments which I believe I can overcome by way of morality and virtue. Order, courage, patience, and faith are all virtues necessary for personal achievement in my life. The first virtue I have chosen is order. In agreement with Russell Kirk, I also believe that "order is the path we follow, or the pattern by which we live with purpose and meaning." Order is something that directs in our everyday lives, a working condition we cannot live without. Without order there is chaos, and with chaos there is room for little virtue. Order is important because it provides life with stability and direction. As an example of a personal order, the school schedule which governs my academic studies is a type of order, setting specifics of where and when I should be. Order helps in my life if I am able and willing to create a schedule for each day, specifically stating when I should be doing what. If I can achieve order in my own life, worries and concerns will be eliminated by means of order that will easily become habit. Russell Kirk also states, "Order is the first need of the soul. It is not possible to love what one ought to love, unless we recognize some principles of order by which to govern ourselves." Because of the needs of our soul, I again agree with Russell Kirk that religion, morality itself, and our everyday feelings are derivatives of order. Nothing can be achieved without some sort of order, but we must first recognize that the things we desire can be achieved only by gaining order. Order is truly the first need of human life. Courage is the second virtue I have chosen. Courage is a virtue needed to conquer fear or despair. The virtue of courage is important because it can be applied in numerous situations. If people possess courage, they can be strong and stable in situations where they might feel uncomfortable. Since there are many things in life which are stressful and unfamiliar, such as apprehension of the first day on a job, first day at a new school, or what you

On-the-Job Training

On-the-job training (OJT) is one of the best training methods because it is planned, organized, and conducted at the employee’s worksite. OJT will generally help the students to increase their productivity and skills. It also helps the students to become a young professional. This is one of the method by which students are able to apply the theories and computations that they have learned from school. It also helps the students to acquire relevant knowledge and skills by performing in actual work setting.May 28, 2013 was my first day of internship at Ayala Multi-Purpose Cooperative located at 8th floor, 111 Paseo De Roxas Building; Paseo De Roxas corner Legaspi street Makati City.During the first day of my training, I and my classmate whom also may co-trainee were first introduced to the head officers and also to the other employees of the company then we’re given some brief information on how the company runs and what are the services they offer. After that, we’ ve been oriented on the system used by the company and how they utilize it, and the accounting procedures that they use to treat for the accounts. On the proceeding time I was first tasked to do some clerical works like filing and sorting of stock certificates of a different person from the different companies.On my training days, I was first taught by Sir Mackey which is the accounting head of Ayala Coop; he taught me how to check the total shares of the members and how to separate the terminated and active members. I was also taught on how to check and encode the new balmori codes of the members of the coop and other transactions under Sir Jennifer Luyun. Although I am only an OJT Trainee I was also entrusted by Ms. Emily Montino which is the IT head supervisor, to check the amortization schedule of the members where the types of loans are included and how much their loan is.Since I am a OJT trainee, I was supposed to undergo other business job which was I have to train at the Cus tomer Service for me to learned on how to deal  with the customers as well as to be able to apply of what I’ve learned from my customer relation subject. At the Customer Service I am under the supervision of Ms. Frances Joy De Asis and Sir Arnel Balmes whom they taught me about the loans at AMPC as well as the loan process, answering telephone calls same as answering the emails and how to check for the vouchers of the clients and most especially on how to deal with the customers. I was also entrusted by Ms. Joy in checking and encoding of the Cheque of the members whom it is for their monthly payment in their loan and also I learned how to find the and check the Official Receipt of the customers.As time went by, I learned to value intimacy and close-knit relationship with my co-trainees and superiors. I learned principles of archiving. I learned to handle my responsibilities and I also observed proper time management and act with speed and urgency.I will not forget this int ernship mostly the last day, August 30, 2013. Yes, it was the day I end my internship at Ayala Multi-Purpose Cooperative, But my success couldn’t turn into reality without the help of these following persons; my superiors, co-trainees, to my loving parents for their moral and financial supports and despite of many efforts, trials and hardships exerted during my training, I would like to dedicate all my accomplishments and success to our Almighty God for his unending blessings showered upon me.This example of my success is a great chance that I will step the victory of my life.

William Golding s Lord Of The Flies - 886 Words

Nicole Fragomeli October 20, 2014 Miss. Classey Per. 6 A Chaotic Nation Imagine if Obama didn t lead the nation. What would the world be like? The government would be a mess and most people wouldn t have a clue on how to live their lives not knowing what s right or wrong. Everyone has a different opinion towards different things. Some say gun laws should be banned while some say they want a gun in their house. In Lord of the Flies by William Golding there are clear aspects of leadership shown within the characterization between Jack and Ralph. I m chief, said Ralph, because you chose me. And we were going to keep the fire going. Now you run after food- (Golding 150). There is evident conflict between the two revealed through†¦show more content†¦Instead, he complains to the boys that they aren t doing things right. â€Å"‘Can’t they see? Can t they understand? Without the smoke signal we’ll all die here. Look at that!’† â€Å"‘We can t keep more fire going. And they don t care. And what s more-’†(Golding 139). When the boys land on the island, there is a vote between all the boys on who should be the leader of their group. Jack felt as though he should have been leader because he was already in charge of the boys choir. â€Å"‘All right. Who wants Jack to be chief?’† â€Å"With dreary obedience the choir raised their hands† â€Å"‘Who wants me?’† â€Å"Every hand outside the choir except Piggy’s was raised immediately. Then Piggy, too, raised his hands grudgingly into the air† (Golding 23). This is the start of the first conflict between the two. Ralph is the protagonist whereas Jack is the antagonist of this novel. Throughout the book, Jack sees himself as admirable and he constantly shows off his leadership skills with his choir. At the start of the novel, we can see his disappointment that he was not elected as chief as for Ralph was. He is often harsh towards Ralph for this reason. However, things take a dark and violent turn when the fire burns out. Jacks true colors come out and we see him for who he really is. Their friendship reaches it’s highs and lows, however, when Jack takes complete leadership over the entire island, theShow MoreRelatedWilliam Golding s Lord Of The Flies1263 Words   |  6 PagesResearch Paper: Lord of the Flies William Golding, the author of Lord of The Flies, included adults for only a brief time throughout the novel, playing only a minor role at the end. The absence of adults exemplifies how children require the structure and guidance that only parents can provide, symbolically, how nations newly freed from the British Empire’s control would be better off under English colonial power to survive and maintain order before deteriorating into anarchy. The adults of theRead MoreWilliam Golding s Lord Of The Flies752 Words   |  4 Pagespossible, so a five year old who teases others to Adolf Hitler would be classified as perpetrators of evil. Lord of the Flies is a fictional story about a group of British boys who get stranded on island. The author of the novel Lord of the Flies, William Golding, showcases Zimbardo’s ideas in his story. Zimbardo did not form his theory Through the character development of Jack and Roger, Golding illustrates the intensity of evil when one is impacted by situational forces. Before Ralph and Piggy unifiesRead MoreWilliam Golding s Lord Of The Flies1869 Words   |  8 PagesEssay Outline – Unit 11 Introductory paragraph: Topic Sentence (includes the book title and author) The novel Lord of the flies by William Golding is a type of literature that revolves around an anti-war theme. Main Points that will be discussed in the essay presented in order of weakest to strongest: 1. Lord of the flies was written during WWII and one of the manifestations is the dead man in the parachute presumably a victim of a bombed plane. 2. Faction among the group which is similar toRead MoreWilliam Golding s Lord Of The Flies1282 Words   |  6 PagesWilliam Golding, the author of Lord of The Flies, included adults for only a brief time throughout the novel, playing only a minor role at the end. The absence of adults exemplifies how children require the structure and guidance that only parents can provide, this can be seen how nations newly freed from the British Empire’s control would be better off under English colonial power to survive and maintain order before deteriorating into anarchy. The adults of the novel can be seen as the motherRead MoreWilliam Golding s Lord Of The Flies1389 Words   |  6 PagesA response to Lord Of The Flies Imagine an airplane crash. The heat of flames scorch passengers’ backs in addition to the wind burning their faces. Lucky, this crash was over water and near an island so most passengers survive, with an exception of the airplane staff and the pilot. Even though alive, many are in fits of fear and panic, and others are in shock. After hurried deliberation, a lone member of the group is elected leader in hopes that they will calm the panic, and make the hard, but necessaryRead MoreWilliam Golding s Lord Of The Flies1315 Words   |  6 PagesWilliam Golding’s novel Lord of the Flies was set somewhere on the timeline of World War Two, a war between the Axis and the Allies lasting from 1939 until 1945. Although WWII was fought between many countries in the Pacific and Europe, the main contender was Germany, led by Adolf Hitler. Hitler and his followers, the Nazis, changed the lives of everyone when they attempted to strengthen Germany and brought out all the evil and ugli ness in the world. After WWII, nothing would be able to change theRead MoreWilliam Golding s Lord Of The Flies1672 Words   |  7 Pages The Different Social Cognition of the Similar Stories — Synthesis essay of Lord of the Flies Final Project With the development of British culture, the format of Desert Island Literature has an inevitable connection with the geographical and culture heritage of the development of British history. Generally speaking, the setting of such literature is basically around an isolated island which is far from human society. The characters usually follow a primary lifestyle so that illustrate the courageRead MoreWilliam Golding s Lord Of The Flies1745 Words   |  7 Pages1954 novel, Lord of the Flies by Nobel Prize-winner William Golding is a dystopian allegory indicative of vast aspects of the human condition. Set in the midst of a nuclear war, the text details a group of marooned British school boys as they regress to a primitive state. Free from the rules and structures of civilisation and society, the boys split into factions - some attempting to maintain order and achieve common goals; others seeking anarchy and violence. The novel is based on Golding’s experienceRead MoreWilliam Golding s Lord Of The Flies1776 Words   |  8 PagesMaybe the beast is us (Golding 85), in the novel, Lord of the Flies, by author William Golding, Golding uses the entire book as social commentary. The social aspect he focuses on is man’s ability to be evil and destructive. William Golding uses three specific literary devices to convey this idea; characterization, diction and symbolism. Lord of the Flies explains man s capacity for evil which is revealed in his inherent human nature, which he cannot control or ignore. The hidden evil withinRead MoreWilliam Golding s Lord Of The Flies1119 Words   |  5 PagesWhat is human nature? How does William Golding use it in such a simple story of English boys to precisely illustrate how truly destructive humans can be? Golding was in World War Two, he saw how destructive humans can be first hand, and how ‘normal’ people can turn into savages. In the book Lord of the Flies by William Golding, Golding uses the theme of human nature to show how easily society can fall, and how self-destructive human nature is towards itself. Throughout the story there are recurring

Ethical, Morality, Or Survival Dilemma Of A College...

Ethical, Morality, or Survival: Dilemma of A College Athlete? Collegiate sports brings in over $6.3 billion a year to universities all over the country. The college coaches are compensated up to seven figure salaries to head the programs. College athletes are not paid one dollar for their contribution for the revenue being brought in to the universities as a result of their performance. There is a strong argument that could be presented by the student athletes and an equally strong case that could be presented by the education institution. There is a scene in the movie â€Å"The Program†, a motion picture depicting inside workings of a major college football program. The scene takes place at a team dinner for the team. It shows a wealthy alumni of the university engage a freshman running back in a conversation. He praised him for his performance on the field. Unbeknownst to the student athlete he slips an envelope, which is perceived to be money into his front pocket and walks away. The student athlete played by actor, Omar Epps, came t o the school as a highly recruited inner city athlete from a low socio economic background. Depending on your ethical upbringing, you may or may not have perceived this encounter as an illegal exchange. This cinematic portrayal of major college football life is realistic view of what is really taking place or at best has the possibility to happen. The fact that most major college athletes come from low income or broken households. StudentShow MoreRelatedStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesBalance Work–Life Conflicts 21 †¢ Creating a Positive Work Environment 22 †¢ Improving Ethical Behavior 22 Coming Attractions: Developing an OB Model 23 An Overview 23 †¢ Inputs 24 †¢ Processes 25 †¢ Outcomes 25 Summary and Implications for Managers 30 S A L Self-Assessment Library How Much Do I Know About Organizational Behavior? 4 Myth or Science? â€Å"Most Acts of Workplace Bullying Are Men Attacking Women† 12 An Ethical Choice Can You Learn from Failure? 24 glOBalization! Does National Culture AffectRead MoreInternational Management67196 Words   |  269 PagesCalifornia State University–Dominguez Hills; Ben Lever III, College of Charleston; Dave Flynn, Hofstra University; Annette Gunter, University of Central Oklahoma; Marjorie Jones, Nova Southeastern University; and Koren Borges, University of North Florida. Our thanks, too, to the reviewers of previous editions of the text: Chi AnyansiArchibong, North Carolina AT State University; Lauryn Migenes, University of Central Florida; Jan Flynn, Georgia College and State University; Valerie S. Perotti, RochesterRead MoreDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 PagesSensitive Line 58 Understanding and Appreciating Individual Differences Important Areas of Sel f-Awareness 61 Emotional Intelligence 62 Values 65 Ethical Decision Making and Values 72 Cognitive Style 74 Attitudes Toward Change 76 Core Self-Evaluation 79 SKILL ANALYSIS 84 Cases Involving Self-Awareness 84 Communist Prison Camp 84 Computerized Exam 85 Decision Dilemmas 86 SKILL PRACTICE 89 Exercises for Improving Self-Awareness Through Self-Disclosure 89 Through the Looking Glass 89 Diagnosing Managerial CharacteristicsRead MoreOrganisational Theory230255 Words   |  922 Pagesfind this book timely, interesting and valuable. Peter Holdt Christensen, Associate Professor, Copenhagen Business School, Denmark McAuley et al.’s book is thought-provoking, witty and highly relevant for understanding contemporary organizational dilemmas. The book engages in an imaginative way with a wealth of organizational concepts and theories as well as provides insightful examples from the practical world of organizations. The authors’ sound scholarship and transparent style of writi ng set the

Descartes Knowledge is Truth Essay - 1202 Words

Descartes: Knowledge is Truth With the emergence of the scientific revolution in the 17th century, views of society and nature were transformed throughout Europe. There were great developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry. The world and its views were changing, and with that change, came a new change in thought, a new change in philosophy. Apart from ancient Greek philosophy, which was centered on finding order in a vast variety of things by searching for a fundamental amalgamating principle, Descartes sought to establish order via some fundamental division. Descartes understands and expresses that what we know about our mind is more definite than what we know about the world outside our mind. Descartes’†¦show more content†¦These preconceived notions keep us from â€Å"the knowledge of the truth† (Descartes 193). In order to access the truth, we must doubt everything. Doubting everything will lead to the distinction between mind and body. Once you recognize th at distinction, you will recognize that â€Å"neither extension nor shape nor local motion, nor anything of this kind which is attributable to a body, belongs to our nature, but that thought alone belongs to us† (195). This thought that we have produces ideas, and these ideas are given to us by God, they are innate. Since God gave us this â€Å"faculty for knowledge [†¦], it can never encompass any object which is not true† (203). For we are able to see the truth clearly and distinctly this way. Descartes argues that God would be a deceiver if what he gave us was able to be distorted and that we can mistake what is false as true. This is not the case, because God is not a deceiver. Some would argue that people do believe things to be true when in fact they are false. This, however, is not the doing of God, it is of our own free will, and it is what Descartes calls â€Å"errors.† Errors do not rely on our intellect, but rather on our own will. Ultimately, do ubting will lead to deductive reasoning, or a series of logical statements eventuallyShow MoreRelatedDescartes And Berkeley s Beliefs On The Source Of Human Knowledge1155 Words   |  5 PagesIn this paper, I will compare and contrast Descartes’ and Berkeley’s beliefs on the source of human knowledge and how it relates to their definitions of absolute truth. According to Descartes, the source of human knowledge is found only through thinking, because our senses deceive us. Absolute truth, for Descartes, is objective fact established through deductive reasoning. Berkeley, on the other hand, believes that human knowledge originates from perception and that absolute fact is one’s perceptionsRead MoreMontaigne and Descartes on Doubting1571 Words   |  7 PagesMontaigne and Descartes Montaigne and Descartes both made use of a philosophical method that focused on the use of doubt to make discoveries about themselves and the world around them. However, they doubted different things. Descartes doubted all his previous knowledge from his senses, while Montaigne doubted that there were any absolute certainties in knowledge. Although they both began their philosophical processes by doubting, Montaigne doubting a constant static self, and Descartes doubted thatRead MorePhaedo by Plato1189 Words   |  5 PagesPeople approach knowledge in different ways. Not many people have the same view on knowledge thus making it hard to grasp. Certain people are rationalist thinkers who regard reason as the chief source and test of knowledge. They believe knowledge comes from oneself which is based out of the mind. The truth is not based upon the sense rather on intellect and deductive reasoning. Contestants of this perspective on knowledge are called empiricists. People who pra ctice this form of thinking conceiveRead MoreDescartes Meditations On First Philosophy807 Words   |  4 PagesRuhl Professor Copley Philosophy 1000C 4 May 2015 Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy Rene Descartes was the first great philosopher of the modern era, He had a new approach which was focused on scientific and mathematical truths. Descartes came to reject the scholastic tradition, one of which he was educated, due to his pursuit of mathematical and scientific truth. Much of Descartes work was done to secure advancement of human knowledge through the use of the natural sciences. His radicalRead MoreDescartes Argument For The Discovery Of Scientific Truth Essay1192 Words   |  5 Pagesoffered by Renà © Descartes in Rules for the Discovery of Scientific Truth. In order to accomplish this task, I will discern and explain Descartes’ argument, offer what I consider to be the most significant objection to the argument, and contemplate how Descartes would reply to my objection. For the purposes of explanation, I will temporarily put aside the first sentence of the paragraph in which Descartes’ argument can be found. The second sentence of the paragraph begins with Descartes discussing howRead More montaigne and descartes on doubting Essay example1560 Words   |  7 PagesMontaigne and Descartes nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Montaigne and Descartes both made use of a philosophical method that focused on the use of doubt to make discoveries about themselves and the world around them. However, they doubted different things. Descartes doubted all his previous knowledge from his senses, while Montaigne doubted that there were any absolute certainties in knowledge. Although they both began their philosophical processes by doubting, Montaigne doubting a constant staticRead MoreEssay Rene Descartess View on God1300 Words   |  6 Pageshow the world would be different if God did exist in real life and not just a supernatural force.   You may be asking yourself, What does this have to do with the seventeenth century?   Well, in the seventeenth century, there was a man, named Rene Descartes, who was interested in God and wondered about His existence.   After an unforgettable night in November 10, 1619, his interest in God became stronger, and had developed many views that concerne d or were about God. When he expressed his investigationsRead MoreEssay about Descartes discourse on method931 Words   |  4 Pages Understanding Descartes’ Method of Doubt Clear your mind, if you will, of everything you have ever seen or known to be true. To begin understanding Rene Descartes’ method of doubt, you need to suspend all prejudice and prior judgments and start with a clean slate â€Å"for the purpose of discovering some ultimate truth on which to base all thought.† (Kolak, Pg.225). Discouraged with much skepticism from his own beliefs, Descartes was embarrassed of his own ignorance. He set out to try and accomplishRead MoreDescartes Discourse on Method931 Words   |  4 PagesUnderstanding Descartes Method of Doubt Clear your mind, if you will, of everything you have ever seen or known to be true. To begin understanding Rene Descartes method of doubt, you need to suspend all prejudice and prior judgments and start with a clean slate for the purpose of discovering some ultimate truth on which to base all thought. (Kolak, Pg.225). Discouraged with much skepticism from his own beliefs, Descartes was embarrassed of his own ignorance. He set out to try and accomplishRead MoreKnowledge And The Act Of Knowing Essay1006 Words   |  5 PagesKnowledge and the act of knowing could be said to be central to the experience of humanity as we define it, and indeed the study of these things, epistemology, is one which gets to the core of who we are as a race and how we interact as individuals with the world around us. In examining these ideas and forming a personal theory of knowledge, an individual, being confronted with one of the essential questions of human existence: â€Å"What is knowledge?’, can easily become mentally overwhelmed by its scope

International Law

Questions: 1. Identify relevant sources of international law.2. Demonstrate a knowledge of appropriate case studies.3. Demonstrate a familiarity with key current or historical debates in international law as reflected in scholarly works.4. Understand key theories of international law. Answers: In the international scenario, the issues and the concerns of human rights are ones that are debated broadly in modern world. The reason for this is that the questions relating to human rights are fundamental in relation to humanity. The assignment deals with the claw back clauses that are evident in African Charter. The internationalization process related with human rights deals with the instruments that are international for the purpose of recognition of the need and requirement for the promotion and preservation of the human rights for maintaining the peace of the world. The adoption of Protocol that is related with the African Charter on the Human Rights and the setting up of an African Court based on the rights of the human and people was regarded as a significant and evident step in making the enhancement of the human rights that is regional in Africa. The said development is the effective signaling to make the dealing with the violations of human rights in a structured judicial process. The aim of such development is also to make the acknowledgment of the failure of the African Commission on Human Rights in making the meaningful effect on the maintenance and the development of the human rights and that too in the territory of Africa. The said failure emerges from the horse-trading in the political sense, and that resulted in the human rights disregard. As demarcated by Jean-Paul Masseron, the statesman of Africa possesses a motive to make the sacrifice of their personal liberties for making the safeguard of their national independence. The African Court that is based on the human rights performs the function of development and maintenance of the human rights. Such maintenance and performance have to be done by reinforcing and complementing the protective mandate and the functions of the African Commission. The protocol adaptation was then followed by the formation of the Union of Africa. It is regarded as the supranational structure that bears similarity with the European Union (Abebe 2012). The African Union was necessitated due to the enhancement of the globalization and the expressed disenchantment by the people of Africa in relation with their economic, political and the social choices that are enhanced by those peoples respective government. The art of construction that is possessed by the African Union has to lead to the establishing of the Court of Justice of that Union. The year of 2008 saw the decision was taken by the African Union of merging with the African Court that is based on the human rights along with the African Court of Justice for making the streamline of the judicial system that is regional (Ali, 2013). In spite of the optimism that surrounds the said developments there sustains the danger of not fulfilling the mandate of the Court as a result, of trading of the political horses as allured previously. The same incident may also occur in the event where the Court is engaged in legitimizing the institutional practices of the member states (Assefa 2014). In those cases, the biases that is apparent is in the favor of any certain government. The perception regarding the fact that injustice shall prevail and that would result in rendering the court a tool in the political sense about the Governments of Africa. The leniency that is apparent by the said Court towards the governments acts as a factor that is additional towards contributing towards the failure of the Court in meeting the mandate. Those factors are as follows: Violation of the historical norms of human rights by the states that is contained in African Charter and also in the different instruments of the international human rights. The factor of ethnic intolerance that emerges primarily in drawing the boundaries that are artificial by the pre-existed colonizing powers. The principles such as the margin of appreciation make the allowance to the states to make the deviation from the application that is proper, of the norms of human rights that are accepted. The usage of the excessive clause of claw-back that is evident in the African Charter. The claw-back clauses help in instituting the restrictions that exist already in the provisions of human rights that are built already. The most notable provision is the African Charter (Burbano-Herrera and Viljoen 2014). The internal modifier makes the qualification of the rights and at the same time grants the permission to a state to make the restriction of such rights to that maximum extension that is permitted by the domestic law. The African Charter through Article 6 makes the provision that every individual shall possess the right of liberty and security. According to that Article in the African Charter, it is provided that no person should be deprived of the freedom of liberty except for the reasons and the conditions that are laid down by the law previously (Dhaliwal 2014). This provision in the first instance makes the recognition of the right to the security and liberty and afterward proceeds to make the removal of the certainty of that right in the subsequent instance. In the simple terms, it means that any individual is granted the right and then is deprived simultaneously because of its subject to the constraints of domestic that often make the deprivation of the populace of all the protection in the legal sense. There has been a criticism among other critics by Dlamini for the extensive use of the claw-back clauses that is in the African Charter. The criticism of the extensive use is done because it limits the impact of the provisions of the African Charter by giving the member states too much autonomy and at this moment allowing them for making the violation of the human rights and that too with impunity (Durojaye 2013). In the view of Dlamini, the clauses make the allowance of the limitations that are discretionary. It is for this reason the claw-back clauses are considered as a weakness in the African system. The doctrine of the margin of appreciation states that there are certain situations, where at the domestic level, the States are allowed to make the exercise of a certain discretion degree in making the application and the implementation of the provisions of human rights that are guaranteed (Ekhator 2015). In the simpler terms, it means that the doctrine of the margin of appreciation is applied by any state in its discretion in the case when its conduct get challenged on that ground of making the violation of a right that is guaranteed and enshrined in the domestic treaty or the treaty of regional human rights. The European Courts jurisprudence is rich with those cases in which the doctrine has been applied. The case of Handyside v UK was considered as the first case where it was recognized that is was not possible to make the finding of the domestic law of the several states that are contracting by a uniform European morals conception (Elvy 2012). It is because every state that is contracting have a continuous and direct contact with the vital forces of the countries. The State authorities as compared to the international judges are in a better condition in making the judgment regarding the penalty or restriction that is to be rendered in the case of violation of human rights. It is for these reasons that the Court held that the domestic margin of the appreciation goes parallel with the European supervision (Gwaza and Garba 2015). A regional court of human rights hence is given the duty of making the observance of the engagements of the member states. The doctrine of marginal appreciation makes the requirement that while doing the said function, the court must also take into its account the factual and the legal situations in the State with that result that the protection standards varies in place and time. The problem and the difficulty that the Court would face is at the time of making the determination of the procedure of the application of the doctrine when any complaint makes the allegation of the violation of the provisions of the African Charter and that also makes the inclusion of the calwback clause. The first step in making the consideration of the said question is to make the identification of the exact provisions of the African Charter that contains the claw-back clauses (Helfer 2015). The provisions that contain the claw-back clauses are the right to life that is provided in Article 4 of the Charter, the security and liberty rights of a person that is provided in Article 6 of the Charter. It also includes the freedom of profession, religion and conscience that is provided in Article 8 of the Charter, freedom to association that is provided in Article 10 of the Charter, the freedom of assembly that is provided in Article 11 of the African Charter. The claw-back clauses are a lso contained in the freedom of residence and movement that is provided in Article 12 of the Charter and the right to make the participation in the government that is provided in Article 13 of the African Charter (Hellum 2013). The right of making the participation in the government is subject to the provision of the domestic law that carries with itself the implication that the right is not subject to violation in a one-party state. In addition to that, the military regimes are also accommodated with the claw-back clauses that is provided in Article 12 of the African Charter (Morel, C., 2014). It is because it gives the governments of Africa the wide discretion for making the determination of the type of political order that they would implement and makes the inclusion of a one-party state easily. It is advised that the Court may not make the application of the doctrine of the margin of appreciation in those cases where the applicant makes the allegation of violation of a provision that contains in it a claw-back clause. The reason for this that the inclusion of a clause that is claw-back or an internal modifier is that right that is in question is since the inception of African Charter is subject to restrictions automatically (Ngwena 2014). The application of the doctrine of the doctrine of the margin of appreciation would lead to the destruction of the rights in complete terms. It would mean and indicate to some extent double jeopardy and would render the provision to a promise that is empty and would incorporate a feeling that those provisions should never have been incorporated in the African Charter from its inception (Onyoyo 2014). The definition of the claw-back clause as an internal modifier makes the emphasis of the fact that the right that is in question suffers already from the drawback of having proper implementation, definition and application in that manner that makes the deprivation of the real substance. In case there happens the dual application of the claw-back clauses and the doctrine of the margin of appreciation, then there lies the risk of dire consequences. The states and their nationals where the system of institutional apartheid takes place or is practiced would face the dire consequences (Pascale 2014). The disadvantage that the application of doctrine of the margin of appreciation to the above circumstances is not limited in relation to the immediate impact that the doctrine has on the individuals. The results of the application of the claw-back clauses are more sinister. The application of the claw-back clauses and the doctrine of the margin of appreciation would result in the failure of the of establishing a regime of regional human rights that is credible and workable longtime (Peter and Mwalimu 2012). It would leave the Africans with no or little recourse when such human rights are violated. Hence, this would leave the Court to act as a white elephant which is attacked by several criticisms that plagued the Commission of Africa. It is also the duty of the Court to make the avoidance of the lethargy of the Commission of Africa. There is the requirement of a court of regional human rights. It would turn to be disastrous for the African territory in case the regional human rights procedure were to make the entry in the state that is based on regression. Such entry would be after the adoption of the Protocol (Peter and Steyn 2015). The protocol would turn to be a milestone that aids in the recognition of the tragedy of the failure of making the provision of a body of human rights that is judicial in nature in the Charter of Africa. The said protocol is considered as a giant leap in the appropriate for the people of Africa who up to the date suffered firstly at the hands of the colonialists and subsequent to that at the hands of the leaders, whom they thought and expected to drive them out from the pasts darkness. The practicality and the reality has proven at several times that those leaders had no difficulty in subverting the norms of the human rights of their people. The government often made the use of the national laws in order makes the justification of the conduct of the State that derives from the values that are important such as freedom, dignity and equality that undermines the provisions of human rights in the African Charter (Reiter 2014). The said values are based on the sense of morality and are aimed at making the regulation of the human conduct in order to ensure the respect to the humans. The protocol adaptation is also considered as the recognition of the failure in the general sense of majority of the governments of the Africa in relation to the regulation of their conduct that in a way acts as the failure in respecting those people whom they govern. In the recent years, Africa has taken the initiative in the establishment of the Court that would indeed serve as a travesty of justice. It is also expected that Court would also pay heed to the criticisms that have been leveled against the commissions and the courts of the human rights. The failure of the courts in paying heed to such criticisms would mean that the adoption of the protocol would become an exercise that is in futile. There is also no doubt in the fact that the Courts also need to make the development of the instruments of interpretation while making the deliberations in the light of wide differences that in the cultural, ethnic, political and religious opinion (Resmini 2015). It is because such opinions prevail in the continent that is dogged by supremacy of the politics that is above the rule of the law. It is also necessary that there is the application of the doctrine in certain situations. Hence, it would considered as wise for the Court to make the application of the doctrine in a sense that is strict and also ensuring that the rule of the law prevails with respect for humans. Such rule of law must prevail over the political Machiavellianism. In case the states are allowed a broad margin of appreciation, primarily regarding the claw-back clauses, would mean to return Africa in such a point in which there is no existence of the regional court. The states would consider it free to divert the norms of human rights in that knowledge that the Court acts as a political institution and the primary concern of the Court is appeasing the government without making the achievement of its mandate. It can be said that Africa has entered into a phase that is crucial for its development and there is also the requirement of a new approach and attitude to the human rights. The calwback clauses is the distinctive feature of the African Charter that permits the breach of the obligations for several reasons in the normal circumstances. The exercise of the maximum rights of the African Charter is subject to limitation through the uses of certain clauses such as within the law, provided that individual abides by the law etc. By having regard to the other systems as regional and universal, the African Charter makes the inclusion of the clauses that are related with derogation. The clauses of derogation are different from the claw-back clauses in the fact that the derogatory clauses itself makes the explicit provision of the circumstances where the rights are limited and the rights that are regarded as non-derogable and should be respected and even when such derogation is permitted (Rudma n 2015). The African Charter makes a stronger focus to the subject of peoples rights. The African Charter could be distinguished as being the sole international tool that provides the detailed exposition of the peoples rights. In the African system the machinery of enforcement had rested long in the single institution that is the Commission of Africa. It is similar to the universal system that is performed in the enforcement that is monitored by the Committee of the United Nations Human Rights. But the enforcement machinery system had departed from systems related to regions. The system although got approved by the leaders of Africa in the year of 1981 is quite different from the system that conceived in the year of 1998 that resulted in the inclusion of the African Court on the rights of human and people besides the Commission (Viljoen 2013). The system later on joined Inter-American that has the said couple of institutions and still they departed from the European one that led to the suppre ssion of the European Commission. The organization of African Unity is the organ that is related with politics makes the creation of outlook for the Courts success. However, the fact is imperative that the bench member seek the lessons of the experience of the European in case the Court makes the service of any real service in the territory of Africa (Windridge 2015). 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