Outline of the key models of working memory

Outline of the key models of working memory Memory has long fascinated cognitive psychologists and cognitive theories as to the nature of memory go as far back as the late 19th century and William James (James, 1890). He was the first to propose a multi-store model of memory. In it he distinguished between primary and secondary memory. He stated that primary memory consisted of information that remained in the consciousness immediately after it had been perceived and secondary memory which constituted memories that had left the consciousness but were still readily obtainable. His theories became the benchmark for cognitive research in the area of memory and were expanded upon with the terms short-term memory and long-term memory soon becoming coined instead of his primary and secondary memory model. This was then developed into a three stage model by Atkinson and Shiffren in 1968 (Passer Smith, 2009). This multi-store model was a quite a large advancement; however it was very basic in design as regards the workings of short t erm memory (Eysenck Keane, 2010). It wasnt until the 70s and Baddeley and Hitchs model of working memory, that a more developed theory on short term memory was properly explored (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974). They believed that the three stage model of memory was too passive in its explanation on short term memory. This was the most complex theory in this area that had been put forward at the time, however Baddeleys Working Memory theory is not universally agreed upon and other contrasting views exist. For example Shah and Miyake disagree with some of Baddeleys assumptions in a paper published in 1996 (Eysenck and Keane, 2010). In this essay different theories on working memory will be explored, also to be taken into account is how they compare and contrast. It will also be evaluated whether working memory can be understood in terms of attentional control by taking into account various studies. The Working Memory model has been greatly expanded on over the years since it was first published yet its core arguments remain the same. Working memory is a limited capacity system that temporarily stores and processes information (Passer Smith, 2009). According to Baddeley, working memory is split into four components, a phonological loop, a visuo-spatial sketchpad, a central executive and an episodic buffer. The phonological loop is where sounds are briefly stored in working memory. It is active when listening to spoken words or sounding out words while reading. Baddeley and Hitch proposed that the phonological loop is made up of two mechanisms, a phonological store and an articulatory rehearsal system. The articulatory rehearsal system silently repeats the information in order to access the phonological store which is connected with the perception of speech. As shown in Eysenck Keane (2010) there is fairly good evidence to support its presence through research with brain damaged patients. However the point should be raised that the phonological loop seems to have little purpose as people with deficient phonological loops seem to manage very well. The visuo-spatial sketchpad oversees the brief storage of visual and spatial information (Passer Smith, 2010). Similar to the phonological loop Baddeley proposed that it also can be separated into two mechanisms, the visual cache which stores information concerning the image from and colour and the inner scribe which processes spatial and movement information. It also transfers the information from the visual cache to the central executive. It should also be noted that the Baddeleys working memory theory allows for the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad to be used simultaneously, this can be seen when a word is linked with an image in memory. Evidence by a variety of researchers supports the idea of separate spatial and visual components including research by Quinn and Mc Connell in 1996 and Beschin et al in 1997 however very little is yet proven about the processes which integrate both of these (Eysenck Keane, 2010). The central executive is the most important, yet least understood, of Baddeleys four components in his working memory model. It directs the overall action of the other components and is theorized to be contained in the frontal lobes of the brain. It is also theorized to be responsible for the switching of attention between tasks, the planning of sub-tasks to achieve a goal, the updating and checking of the contents of the working memory system and coding representations in working memory for time and place of appearance (Eysenck Keane, 2010). Baddeley used the impairments displayed by individuals who suffered from damage to the frontal lobes on their brain as evidence to support the presence of the central executive. He hypothesised that it was because of a malfunctioning central executive that these individuals acted as though they lacked a system to control their processing resources appropriately. Baddeley called this dysexecutive syndrome (Eysenck Keane, 2010). The final component of Baddeleys model is the episodic buffer; this was only added to the working memory theory in 2000. It was believed that the model was lacking a general storage system that is not limited to just one form of information but can manage several types. This is the role that the episodic buffer fills. It takes information from both the long term and working memory and integrates and manipulates it so that it can be consciously used. Baddeley also believed that the episodic buffer comes into play when chunking information. He proposed that the episodic buffer expands on the phonological loops limited acoustic range and allows the brain to remember larger chunks of information in the short term by putting them into meaningful phrases and linking them together with what is already known in the long term memory (Passer Smith, 2009) Baddeley and Hitches working memory model is extremely comprehensive and is a very valid alternative to Atkinson and Shiffrens short term store model as it has more evidence to support its theories then the other way around (Eysenck Keane, 2010). However not all researchers agree with all aspects of this working memory model. Shah and Miyake (1996) disagreed with Baddeleys notion that there is only one central executive. They put forward the theory that there are in fact separate central executives that deal with verbal and spatial working memory systems respectively. They obtained evidence that supported their view through a study in which students were presented with tests of verbal and spatial working memory, in their results the correlations between reading span and spatial span seemed to agree with their hypothesis on separateness. This showcases that Baddeley and Hitches model is not omnipotent. Another working memory model is Cowans Integrated Framework theory (Cowan, 1995). Here Cowan doesnt regard working memory as a separate system, but as a part of long-term memory and he believes that working memory is organized into two levels. The first level is made up of the activation of long-term memory stores; he believes that there can be many of these and that there is no limit to activation of these stores in long-term memory. The second level is called the focus of attention. The focus is regarded as capacity limited and holds up to four of the activated stores. Cowans model is not as expansive as Baddeleys and it goes against the grain as it promotes a single-store model which could be viewed as dated by many researchers today. However it does attempt to understand working memory in terms of attentional control, a view shared by many. A study on adults with ADHD sought to prove whether working memory ability could explain group differences in brain activity between those with ADHD and a control group during attentionally demanding situations (Burgess et al, 2010). Their results seemed to suggest that a link does indeed exist between working memory and attentional control. Also, Baddeley himself said that the central executive and the supervisory attentional system (SAS) described by Shallice (1982) were one and the same. According to Shallice, the supervisory attentional system is a limited capacity system that is used for a variety of purposes, including the monitoring of tasks involving planning or decision making. In conclusion this essay examined the working memory model and some of its offshoot models. Baddeley and Hitchs original model has been developed and most researchers use it as the base model for their studies in this area. It has been expanded upon many times over the years and seems to be able to incorporate more modern ideas into its basic structure. As a result the argument can be put forward that it is currently the best model of working memory. As regards working memory and attentional control, they appear to be linked and studies seem to have shown that link as shown by

Virtues Of My Life: Order, Courage, Patience :: essays research papers

Virtues of My Life: Order, Courage, Patience In order to survive in 1996, there need to be at least some standards and goals of morality in a person's life. Moral excellence is definitely hard to achieve, but is definitely something to attempt. Personally, there are many distractions and obstructions the present day provides, creating a difficulty of direction in my own life. I need to overcome obstacles such as peer pressure in order to become a confident, successful person. The present day provides impediments which I believe I can overcome by way of morality and virtue. Order, courage, patience, and faith are all virtues necessary for personal achievement in my life. The first virtue I have chosen is order. In agreement with Russell Kirk, I also believe that "order is the path we follow, or the pattern by which we live with purpose and meaning." Order is something that directs in our everyday lives, a working condition we cannot live without. Without order there is chaos, and with chaos there is room for little virtue. Order is important because it provides life with stability and direction. As an example of a personal order, the school schedule which governs my academic studies is a type of order, setting specifics of where and when I should be. Order helps in my life if I am able and willing to create a schedule for each day, specifically stating when I should be doing what. If I can achieve order in my own life, worries and concerns will be eliminated by means of order that will easily become habit. Russell Kirk also states, "Order is the first need of the soul. It is not possible to love what one ought to love, unless we recognize some principles of order by which to govern ourselves." Because of the needs of our soul, I again agree with Russell Kirk that religion, morality itself, and our everyday feelings are derivatives of order. Nothing can be achieved without some sort of order, but we must first recognize that the things we desire can be achieved only by gaining order. Order is truly the first need of human life. Courage is the second virtue I have chosen. Courage is a virtue needed to conquer fear or despair. The virtue of courage is important because it can be applied in numerous situations. If people possess courage, they can be strong and stable in situations where they might feel uncomfortable. Since there are many things in life which are stressful and unfamiliar, such as apprehension of the first day on a job, first day at a new school, or what you

On-the-Job Training

On-the-job training (OJT) is one of the best training methods because it is planned, organized, and conducted at the employee’s worksite. OJT will generally help the students to increase their productivity and skills. It also helps the students to become a young professional. This is one of the method by which students are able to apply the theories and computations that they have learned from school. It also helps the students to acquire relevant knowledge and skills by performing in actual work setting.May 28, 2013 was my first day of internship at Ayala Multi-Purpose Cooperative located at 8th floor, 111 Paseo De Roxas Building; Paseo De Roxas corner Legaspi street Makati City.During the first day of my training, I and my classmate whom also may co-trainee were first introduced to the head officers and also to the other employees of the company then we’re given some brief information on how the company runs and what are the services they offer. After that, we’ ve been oriented on the system used by the company and how they utilize it, and the accounting procedures that they use to treat for the accounts. On the proceeding time I was first tasked to do some clerical works like filing and sorting of stock certificates of a different person from the different companies.On my training days, I was first taught by Sir Mackey which is the accounting head of Ayala Coop; he taught me how to check the total shares of the members and how to separate the terminated and active members. I was also taught on how to check and encode the new balmori codes of the members of the coop and other transactions under Sir Jennifer Luyun. Although I am only an OJT Trainee I was also entrusted by Ms. Emily Montino which is the IT head supervisor, to check the amortization schedule of the members where the types of loans are included and how much their loan is.Since I am a OJT trainee, I was supposed to undergo other business job which was I have to train at the Cus tomer Service for me to learned on how to deal  with the customers as well as to be able to apply of what I’ve learned from my customer relation subject. At the Customer Service I am under the supervision of Ms. Frances Joy De Asis and Sir Arnel Balmes whom they taught me about the loans at AMPC as well as the loan process, answering telephone calls same as answering the emails and how to check for the vouchers of the clients and most especially on how to deal with the customers. I was also entrusted by Ms. Joy in checking and encoding of the Cheque of the members whom it is for their monthly payment in their loan and also I learned how to find the and check the Official Receipt of the customers.As time went by, I learned to value intimacy and close-knit relationship with my co-trainees and superiors. I learned principles of archiving. I learned to handle my responsibilities and I also observed proper time management and act with speed and urgency.I will not forget this int ernship mostly the last day, August 30, 2013. Yes, it was the day I end my internship at Ayala Multi-Purpose Cooperative, But my success couldn’t turn into reality without the help of these following persons; my superiors, co-trainees, to my loving parents for their moral and financial supports and despite of many efforts, trials and hardships exerted during my training, I would like to dedicate all my accomplishments and success to our Almighty God for his unending blessings showered upon me.This example of my success is a great chance that I will step the victory of my life.

William Golding s Lord Of The Flies - 886 Words

Nicole Fragomeli October 20, 2014 Miss. Classey Per. 6 A Chaotic Nation Imagine if Obama didn t lead the nation. What would the world be like? The government would be a mess and most people wouldn t have a clue on how to live their lives not knowing what s right or wrong. Everyone has a different opinion towards different things. Some say gun laws should be banned while some say they want a gun in their house. In Lord of the Flies by William Golding there are clear aspects of leadership shown within the characterization between Jack and Ralph. I m chief, said Ralph, because you chose me. And we were going to keep the fire going. Now you run after food- (Golding 150). There is evident conflict between the two revealed through†¦show more content†¦Instead, he complains to the boys that they aren t doing things right. â€Å"‘Can’t they see? Can t they understand? Without the smoke signal we’ll all die here. Look at that!’† â€Å"‘We can t keep more fire going. And they don t care. And what s more-’†(Golding 139). When the boys land on the island, there is a vote between all the boys on who should be the leader of their group. Jack felt as though he should have been leader because he was already in charge of the boys choir. â€Å"‘All right. Who wants Jack to be chief?’† â€Å"With dreary obedience the choir raised their hands† â€Å"‘Who wants me?’† â€Å"Every hand outside the choir except Piggy’s was raised immediately. Then Piggy, too, raised his hands grudgingly into the air† (Golding 23). This is the start of the first conflict between the two. Ralph is the protagonist whereas Jack is the antagonist of this novel. Throughout the book, Jack sees himself as admirable and he constantly shows off his leadership skills with his choir. At the start of the novel, we can see his disappointment that he was not elected as chief as for Ralph was. He is often harsh towards Ralph for this reason. However, things take a dark and violent turn when the fire burns out. Jacks true colors come out and we see him for who he really is. Their friendship reaches it’s highs and lows, however, when Jack takes complete leadership over the entire island, theShow MoreRelatedWilliam Golding s Lord Of The Flies1263 Words   |  6 PagesResearch Paper: Lord of the Flies William Golding, the author of Lord of The Flies, included adults for only a brief time throughout the novel, playing only a minor role at the end. The absence of adults exemplifies how children require the structure and guidance that only parents can provide, symbolically, how nations newly freed from the British Empire’s control would be better off under English colonial power to survive and maintain order before deteriorating into anarchy. The adults of theRead MoreWilliam Golding s Lord Of The Flies752 Words   |  4 Pagespossible, so a five year old who teases others to Adolf Hitler would be classified as perpetrators of evil. Lord of the Flies is a fictional story about a group of British boys who get stranded on island. The author of the novel Lord of the Flies, William Golding, showcases Zimbardo’s ideas in his story. Zimbardo did not form his theory Through the character development of Jack and Roger, Golding illustrates the intensity of evil when one is impacted by situational forces. Before Ralph and Piggy unifiesRead MoreWilliam Golding s Lord Of The Flies1869 Words   |  8 PagesEssay Outline – Unit 11 Introductory paragraph: Topic Sentence (includes the book title and author) The novel Lord of the flies by William Golding is a type of literature that revolves around an anti-war theme. Main Points that will be discussed in the essay presented in order of weakest to strongest: 1. Lord of the flies was written during WWII and one of the manifestations is the dead man in the parachute presumably a victim of a bombed plane. 2. Faction among the group which is similar toRead MoreWilliam Golding s Lord Of The Flies1282 Words   |  6 PagesWilliam Golding, the author of Lord of The Flies, included adults for only a brief time throughout the novel, playing only a minor role at the end. The absence of adults exemplifies how children require the structure and guidance that only parents can provide, this can be seen how nations newly freed from the British Empire’s control would be better off under English colonial power to survive and maintain order before deteriorating into anarchy. The adults of the novel can be seen as the motherRead MoreWilliam Golding s Lord Of The Flies1389 Words   |  6 PagesA response to Lord Of The Flies Imagine an airplane crash. The heat of flames scorch passengers’ backs in addition to the wind burning their faces. Lucky, this crash was over water and near an island so most passengers survive, with an exception of the airplane staff and the pilot. Even though alive, many are in fits of fear and panic, and others are in shock. After hurried deliberation, a lone member of the group is elected leader in hopes that they will calm the panic, and make the hard, but necessaryRead MoreWilliam Golding s Lord Of The Flies1315 Words   |  6 PagesWilliam Golding’s novel Lord of the Flies was set somewhere on the timeline of World War Two, a war between the Axis and the Allies lasting from 1939 until 1945. Although WWII was fought between many countries in the Pacific and Europe, the main contender was Germany, led by Adolf Hitler. Hitler and his followers, the Nazis, changed the lives of everyone when they attempted to strengthen Germany and brought out all the evil and ugli ness in the world. After WWII, nothing would be able to change theRead MoreWilliam Golding s Lord Of The Flies1672 Words   |  7 Pages The Different Social Cognition of the Similar Stories — Synthesis essay of Lord of the Flies Final Project With the development of British culture, the format of Desert Island Literature has an inevitable connection with the geographical and culture heritage of the development of British history. Generally speaking, the setting of such literature is basically around an isolated island which is far from human society. The characters usually follow a primary lifestyle so that illustrate the courageRead MoreWilliam Golding s Lord Of The Flies1745 Words   |  7 Pages1954 novel, Lord of the Flies by Nobel Prize-winner William Golding is a dystopian allegory indicative of vast aspects of the human condition. Set in the midst of a nuclear war, the text details a group of marooned British school boys as they regress to a primitive state. Free from the rules and structures of civilisation and society, the boys split into factions - some attempting to maintain order and achieve common goals; others seeking anarchy and violence. The novel is based on Golding’s experienceRead MoreWilliam Golding s Lord Of The Flies1776 Words   |  8 PagesMaybe the beast is us (Golding 85), in the novel, Lord of the Flies, by author William Golding, Golding uses the entire book as social commentary. The social aspect he focuses on is man’s ability to be evil and destructive. William Golding uses three specific literary devices to convey this idea; characterization, diction and symbolism. Lord of the Flies explains man s capacity for evil which is revealed in his inherent human nature, which he cannot control or ignore. The hidden evil withinRead MoreWilliam Golding s Lord Of The Flies1119 Words   |  5 PagesWhat is human nature? How does William Golding use it in such a simple story of English boys to precisely illustrate how truly destructive humans can be? Golding was in World War Two, he saw how destructive humans can be first hand, and how ‘normal’ people can turn into savages. In the book Lord of the Flies by William Golding, Golding uses the theme of human nature to show how easily society can fall, and how self-destructive human nature is towards itself. Throughout the story there are recurring